关于(中西方文化差异)英语翻译类论文开题报告-中西方
编辑： admin 2017-12-03
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首先,思维与语言的关系犹如母与子的关系.先有人类思维后有语言、图画、音乐等外在表现形式.Language serves as dress of thought．Thoughts are always expressed by words
Without thinking,language would be meaningless?
那么,思维又是如何作用在语言形式上的呢?通过研究可知：思维---表现法---语言具体形式.
现在,我们就来简单分析一下中国人与西方人由历史渊源、地域特性及哲学与文化心理不同而导致的思维的根本差异.
中国自古以来就是传统的农业大国,即所谓“靠天吃饭”.农业、土地与民生息息相关,所以就形成了“天人合一”这一中国文化的精髓.即把人与自然视为和谐统一的整体,人类文化与天命自然统一.The Taoist notion Of following nature is closed related,as in other naturalistic movements,to the idea of fate．这种中国文化的最高境界使中国人习惯于崇尚自然、行于自然；不违天命、顺其自然的处世哲学和宿命论,即Let things remain as they are．而在人与天地万物协调共存的世界中,则存在着循环往复、生生不息的发展变化.美国人说这是moving in endless circles and repeating it over and over again.中国的儒家与道家哲学就深深体现了这种观点.如“道生一、一生二、二生三、三生万物,万物归于道”等,这就是汉民族的循回式思维方式,比如在语言表现法中有回环式： “人不犯我,我不犯人”,及递进式表达： “道高一尺,魔高一丈”.所以,中国人表达事物总是按时间和事理发展顺序由因到果、由先到后、由大到小进行阐述,这种思维模式可称为具体一般型表达(Particular-General Pattern).习惯于问题解决型模式(Problem-solution Pattern),它们不仅在语言上如此,在文化艺术、经济活动中也都占有统治地位.也就是说中国人擅长具象思维.
西方人恰恰相反,他们一向将人与自然分隔开来,认为思维是独立于自然之外的客观事物,讲究“人物分立”,人能够通过斗争征服自然、改造自然.从美国前总统里根(Ronald
Reagan)说过的一句话之中我们就可见一斑：
I do not believe in fate that falls on us no matter what we do,but,1 do believe in fate that will fall on us if we do nothing．(我不相信,无论我们做什么,我们的命运都一样；但是我相
信,如果我们什么都不做,我们的命运是一样的.)
也就是说,He wants us to believe in the struggle,not in the fate．诸多此类象美国人热衷于job-hopping(跳槽),美国人的梦想便是being a self-made man from rags to riches.再比
如,从东方人与西方人做事的动因也可以发现：
The Chinese is always described as a person who does things because they have been done before．And the Americans a person who does things because they haven’t been done before．(中国人做一件事是因为这件事以前有人做过；美国人做一件事是因为这件事以前从未有人做过.)Americans love to try something new mostly because of a belief that newer maybe better．(美国人喜欢尝试新事物,很大程度上因为他们认为更
新的可能是更好的.)
通过研究可知,英语自莎士比亚时代以来有很大发展.英语被誉为理性语言,这与欧美哲学较早与改造、征服自然的科学技术相结合,特别是培根和洛克等一代启蒙哲学家恪守的客观形式化方法(即逻辑论证)很有关系.British people love science and technology because these fields of study bring the excitement of new discovery． (英国人热爱科学技术因为它能带来新发现,是改造自然、征服自然的最有力武器.) The love of change is closely tied to faith in improvement．培根思维精深周密；洛克的哲理明豁通达,对英语影响极深.“哲学思辩”(Speculative Philosophy)使他们将英语化为对人类经验(物理变化经验、感觉经验、价值经验)理性构建的精辟描述.从语言学角度来说,培根和洛克等一代理性主义哲学家实质上为英语作了科学规范,以至被称为： “King’s English'’.综上所述,我们不难理西方人的思维模式是一般具体型思维,擅长抽象思维,总是先概括后分解、先表态后叙述、先总结后事例、先整体后细节,由果到因、由小到大等.众所周知,地名的叙述便为一例.
由于中西思维模式的迥异,说话的语序就存在很大区别,所以中国式英语频繁出现.举例说明：
我原先打算七月一日去香港旅游,后来不得不取消,这使我很扫兴.
中国学生就常按中文语序脱口而出,使语义重心落在后面.实际上,按英语思维习惯应先概括,将语义重心放在前面,然后分解开来,所以应翻译成It was keen disappointment
that I had to cancel the visit l had intended to pay to Hong Kong On July 1St．
再看下面典型的例句：“在全球经济事务中,中国应继续保持一个积极而充满活力的力量,我坚信这是符合我国利益的.”
让我们看英语的语序：I strongly believe that it’s in the interests Of my countrymen that China should remain an active and energetic power in global economic matters．
由此可见,汉语是按时间顺序和逻辑发展关系由先到后、由因到果、由假设到推论、由事实到论证,而英语则相反.
简单句中英汉语序的对比：
中文：主语+时间状语+地点状语+方式状语+谓语+宾语
我每天早上在室外高声朗读英语
英文：主语+谓语+宾语+方式状语+地点状语+时间状语
I read English loudly in the open 一、引言
词是语句的基本单位,通常所说的话都是由一个个词构成（陆国强,1983年）.在某些人看来,学语言,如英语,就是把一个个的词、词组、短句学好,掌握其读音、拼写及意思,同时掌握一些基本语法,知道如何把一个个的词、词组及短语连接起来.掌握了这些,英语就学得差不多了.其实不然,如果我们只是把单词按字面意义串起来,而丝毫不懂有关文化背景知识,在实际运用中是行不通的.例如：
（1）英语中green with envy是什么意思?人们忌妒或羡慕时脸色真的变绿或发青吗?
（2）英语中说 Paul was in blue mood; Paul（保尔）是什么情绪?高兴、激动、悲哀,还是什么?
在上列两句中,green（绿）和 blue（兰）都不是指颜色,两个词都有别的意思--某种文化方面的联想--从字面上看这种意思不明显.在词典上,green 这个词有“（脸色）变绿”的意思,但green with envy是个固定词组,不过表示“十分妒忌”而已.blue这个词与mood之类的词连用表现某种情绪时,表示“沮丧的”、“忧郁的”,例2之意为“保尔情绪低落”.以上两个例子就涉及词的字面意义和联想内涵意义,这就是语言文化差异问题,在教学过程中发现许多学生在理解目的语（target language）时,遇到的障碍并非语言知识造成,而是由文化差异导致的.由此可见,在词汇教学中加强语言文化因素的对比显得尤为重要.
二、语言与文化
学语言的目的是为了交流.毫无疑问,词汇教学也要为这一目的服务.人类的交际不单是一种语言现象,也是一种跨文化现象.在教学中,要对两种交际文化进行对比,我们首先从文化谈起.
文化 culture一词是一个含义极其广泛的词语.它狭义指文学、音乐、美术等,而广义讲是一个社会学术语,按照社会学家和人类学家对“文化”所下的定义,我们所说的“文化”是指一个社会所具有的独特的信仰、习惯、制度、目标和技术的总模式.（邓炎昌,刘润清 1989年）
语言是文化的一部分,又是文化的载体和折射镜.透过一个民族的语言,可以窥见该民族绚丽多姿的文化形态.英语词汇作为英语中最活跃、最具生命力的组成部分,最能反映英美文化独特的魅力和内涵.学习英语词汇,实际上也是学习西方文化.对于在母语环境下学英语的中国人来说,应该了解在中西方不同文化背景影响下,英汉词语之间所存在的差异；从另一方面看,语言又受文化的影响,反映文化.可以说语言反映一个民族的特征,它不仅包含着该民族的历史和文化背景,而且蕴藏着该民族对人生的看法、生活方式和思维方式.
例如：
在汉语的文化氛围中,“东风”即是“春天的风”,夏天常与酷署炎热联系在一起,“赤日炎炎似火烧”、“骄阳似火”是常被用来描述夏天的词语.而英国地处西半球,北温带,海洋性气候,报告春天消息的却是西风,英国著名诗人雪莱的《西风颂》正是对春的讴歌.英国的夏季正是温馨宜人的季节,常与“可爱”、“温和”、“美好”相连.莎士比亚在他的一首十四行诗中把爱人比作夏天,Shall I compare thee to a summer’s day?/Thou art more lovely and more temperate,学生能体会到莎翁的“爱”吗?
关于英汉习俗差异,最典型的莫过于在对狗这种动物的态度上.狗在汉语中是一种卑微的动物.汉语中与狗有关的习语大都含有贬意：“狐朋狗党”、“狗急跳墙”、“狼心狗肺”、“狗腿子”等,尽管近些年来养庞物狗的人数大大增加,狗的“地位”似乎有所改变,但狗的贬义形象却深深地留在汉语言文化中.而在西方英语国家,狗被认为是人类最忠诚的朋友.英语中有关狗的习语除了一部分因受其他语言的影响而含有贬义外,大部分都没有贬义.在英语习语中,常以狗的形象来比喻人的行为.如You are a lucky dog（你是一个幸运儿）,Every dog has his day（凡人皆有得意日）,Old dog will not learn new tricks（老人学不了新东西）等等.形容人“病得厉害”用as sick as a dog,“累极了”是dog-tired.与此相反,中国人十分喜爱猫,用“馋猫”比喻人贪嘴,常有亲呢的成份,而在西方文化中,“猫”被用来比喻“包藏祸心的女人”.
宗教信仰有关的习语也大量地出在在英汉语言中.佛教传入中国已有一千多年的历史,人们相信有“佛主”在左右着人世间的一切,与此有关的习语很多,如“借花献佛”、“闲时不烧香,临时抱佛脚”等.在西方许多国家,特别是在英美,人们信奉基督教,相关的习语如Good helps those who help themselves（上帝帮助自助的人）,也有Go to hell（下地狱去）这样的诅咒.英汉两种语言中还有大量由历史典故形成的习语,这些习语结构简单,意义深远,往往是不能单从字面意义去理解和翻译的.如“东施效颦”、“名落孙山”、“叶公好龙”等等.英语典故习语多来自《圣经》和希腊罗马神话,如Achilles’ heel（唯一致命弱点）、meet one’s waterloo（一败涂地）、Penelope’s web（永远完不成的工作）、a Pandora's box（潘多拉之盒枣灾难、麻烦、祸害的根源）等.
三、中学英语词汇教学存在的主要问题.
中国人学英语大多数从初一开始,近年来才开始在部分小学或幼儿园开设英语课.从6年的中学英语学习过程中,笔者发现教师授课都存在一个普遍特征,那就是先教单词、短语,再讲授课文和做练习.对于单词的讲授无不遵循三个原则：音、形、义,其中“义”也仅仅停留在单词本身的字面意义上.而对于课文的讲授则过分强调语言规则,即一个个的单词是如何按照一定的语法规则组合成句子以及某些单词和短语在这个句子中充当什么成分.另外,对学生所掌握词汇的考核也仅仅停留在要求学生会读、会写以及会运用单词简单造句,对于文化知识或是自身缺少了解,知识面不够广博,或是以为文化知识对学习语言,对提高考试成绩无多大关系,因此往往一带而过,甚至干脆置之一旁.这种做法的弊端是显而易见的.绝大部分学生完成六年的英语学习,脑袋中也装满了单词和短语,可惜无法说出一个完整的句子,学到的仍然是“哑巴英语”.就是在中学英语新教材已经全面使用的今天,由于以上种种原因,虽然平时注意听、说训练,学生能够运用所学的词汇进行简单交流,但由于对语言差异问题缺乏了解,以至于词汇使用不当,出现诸如把“力大如牛”译成“as strong as cow”,把“凡人皆有得意时”译成“Every person has a happy day.”,把“挥金如土”译成“to spend money like earth”,产生交际方面的一系列错误.它们的正确形式为 as strong as a horse； Every dog has its day；to spend money like water.而以下的英语学生能理解其含义吗?如：as blind as a bat(有眼无珠), to rest on one’s oars（暂时歇一歇）,to keep one’s head above water（奋力图存）,all at sea（不知所措）等等.
四、中、英文化比较及英语词汇教学
1、字面意义和涵义
字面意义就是基本的或明显的意义.
词的涵义是词的隐含或附加意义.
从这个定义的解释看,对于学外语的学生来说,不仅要掌握词的字面意义,而且要知道词的涵义.不了解词汇涵义,会在语言上犯严重错误,有时误把好言当恶语,引起谈话者的一方或双方不快；有时误把嘲讽当称赞,被人暗笑.
如“peasant”一词,是“农民”之义,但外国人眼里不是“农民”之意.英语中的peasant与汉语中的“农民”所体现的意义并不完全相同,可能有不同的涵义,英语中的peasant是贬义.《美国传统词典》给peasant下定义：“乡下人、庄稼人、乡巴佬”,“教养不好的人、粗鲁的人”.《新编纬氏大学词典》：“一般指未受过教育的、社会地们低下的人”.在汉语中,“农民”指直接从事农业生产劳动的人,无论在革命斗争中或是在社会主义建设中都是一支重要的力量,丝毫无贬义.农民应译成farmer.
再如,politician 和statesman这两个英语词.Politician是“政治家”吗?反过来说,汉语中的“政治家”这个词应该怎样译成英语呢?有些略懂英语的学生译作politician,这是不合适的.Politician这个词在美国英语中,往往有很强烈的贬义色彩,引起别人的蔑视.它只为谋取个人私利而搞政治、耍手腕的人.这个词还有“精明圆滑的人”（smooth--operator）之义.指一个人做事和说话时,信心十足,非常老练.汉语“政治家”这个词应译为statesman,在英国英语和美国英语当中都很贴切,statesman主要表示善于管理国家的明知之士；人们通常把有威望的高级政府官员称为statesman.
事实上,中英两种语言在字面意和涵义上有以下的关系：
1）、字面意义与涵义相同或相似
(1) Look before you leap.三思而后行
(2) Burn one's boat.破釜沉舟
(3) Strike while the iron is hot.趁热打铁
(4) An eye for an eye, a tooth for a tooth.以眼还眼,以牙还牙.
(5) to lose one's face, to save one's face丢面子,保面子
2）、涵义相似,字面意义不同
(1) The grass is always greener on the other side of the fence.这山望着那山高.
(2) Nothing ventured, nothing gained.不入虎穴,焉得虎子
(3) That's a piece of cake.那是小菜一碟.
(4) As poor as a church mouse.一贫如洗
(5) Let sleeping dogs lie.切勿打草惊蛇
3）、涵义不同,字面意义相似
(1) to fish in muddy water(英语：形容多管闲事,自讨没趣)浑水摸鱼
(2) to make one's hair stand on end(英语：令人毛骨悚然)令人发指
(3) to blow one's own horn(英语：自我炫耀,自吹自擂)各吹各的号
(4) to lock the stable gate after the horse has bolted(英语意思是“太迟了”)亡羊补牢
4）、涵义与字面意义都不同
(1) Modest dogs miss much meat.(英语：谦虚的狗没肉吃.)满招损,歉受益
(2) Where there is fear there is modesty.(原为拉丁语格言：谦虚源于胆怯.)老王买瓜,自卖自夸(反讽)
(3) An excess of modesty obstructs the tongue.(英语：谦虚过分束缚舌头.)自知之明(赞誉)
2、日常谈话中的文化判别
见面打招呼
中国人在吃饭前后打招呼的常用语“吃（饭）了吗?”而美国人则用“Hello”或“Hi”等.如果不理解其涵义,美国人会认为,这种打招呼是说：“没有吃的话,我正要请你到我家去呢.”总之,这样打招呼在西方有时意味着邀请对方去吃饭.
再如,汉语中的“上哪去啊?”以及“到哪儿去啊?”这样打招呼的话直译成英语就是Where are you going?和Where have you been?用这两句英语来打招呼,大部分讲英语的人听了会不高兴,它们反应很可能是：It’s none of your business!（你管得着吗?）
英语国家人打招呼通常以天气、健康状况、交通、体育以及兴趣爱好为话题.
3、称呼语中的政治地位差异
无论在英国或是在中国,人们的政治地位及身份是有所差别的.不同地位、身份的人在日常的工作、生活中不可避免地会碰到一起,这就产生了不同地位、身份的人们之间的交际问题.中英称号不同：
王院长Principal Wang,刘军长Army Commander Liu,马经理 Manager Ma
这一点教材中都有时不注意,如：人教社JEFC教材Book 3 Lesson 14 The man upstairs中,出现过“I’m sorry to trouble you, comrade．”的道歉语.“comrade”是社会主义国家所特有的称呼,在英语国家称呼不知其名的陌生人常用Sir和Madam.如果我们和英语国家的人以comrade相称,他们将会感到莫明其妙.
在JEFC Book 3 Lesson 34 Uncle Wang’s Factory中,学生们称呼一位工人为“Uncle Wang”, 这也是中文思维套用英语的现象.汉语中的亲属称谓有泛化使用的倾向,常用于非亲属之间：年轻人对长辈称“叔叔”、“阿姨”；对平辈称“大哥”、“大姐”.但在英语中,亲属称谓不广泛地用于社交.如果我们对母语是英语的长辈称“Uncle Smith”、“Auntie Brown”,对方听了会觉得不太顺耳.英语文化中只有关系十分密切的情况下才使用此类亲属称谓且后面不带姓,只带名,如“Uncle Tom”.
人教社JEFC Book 1中“What’s your name?”出现的频率相当高,但对于它在何种情况下使用却鲜有解释.实际上,英语国家的人在谈话时一般先介绍自己的名字,如“I am…”对方自然会即刻说出自己的姓名.即使在填写表格、面谈等场合需要问及姓名时,一般也只说“ Your name, please?”或“May I know your name?”或“How can I call you”等,如果使用“What’s your name?”,他们将有一种被审问的感觉.
又如学生知道teacher的含义是“老师”,也就相应地把“王老师”称为Teacher Wang. 其实,英语中teacher只是一种职业；汉语有尊师的传统,“教师”已不仅仅是一种职业,而成为一种对人的尊称.由于这种文化上的差异,造成学生的简单理王老师=Teacher Wang.此外还把汉语中习惯上称呼的“唐秘书”、“张护士”称为Secretary Tang, Nurse Zhang,英语国家的人听起来感觉不可思议.英语中称呼人一般用Mr．, Miss, Mrs．等.
4、其它社交礼节上的不同
以please“请”为例.但是在某些场所却不宜用英语please.让别人先进门或先上车时,不说please,一般说：After you.但是初学英语的人常用You go first,这是不对的.在餐桌上请人吃饭、喝酒、或者请人抽烟时,一般用Help yourself(to sth.),也不用please..
一般来说,我们中国人在家庭成员之间很少用“谢谢”.如果用了,听起来会很怪,或相互关系上有了距离.而在英语国家“Thank you．”几乎用于一切场合,所有人之间,即使父母与子女,兄弟姐妹之间也不例外.送上一瓶饮料,准备一桌美餐,对方都会说一声“Thank you．”公共场合,不管别人帮你什么忙,你都要道一声“Thank you．”.这是最起码的礼节.
当别人问是否要吃点或喝点什么时（Would you like something to eat／drink?）,我们通常习惯于客气一番,回答：“不用了”、“别麻烦了”等.按照英语国家的习惯,你若想要, 就不必推辞,说声“Yes, please．”若不想要,只要说“No, thanks．”就行了.这也充分体现了中国人含蓄和英语国家人坦荡直率的不同风格.
在英语国家,赞美也常用来作为交谈的引子.赞美的内容主要有个人的外貌、外表、新买的东西、个人财物、个人在某方面的出色的工作等.通常称赞别人的外表时只称赞她努力（打扮）的结果,而不是她的天生丽质.因此赞美别人发型的很多,赞美别人漂亮头发的很少.对别人的赞美,最普通的回答是：“Thank you．”如：
A：Your skirt looks nice．
B：Thank you．
中国人初次见面问及年龄、婚姻、收入表示关心,而英语国家人却对此比较反感,认为这些都涉及个人隐私.如在JEFC Book 1 Lesson 16中有这样的对话：“How old are you, Mrs Read?”“Ah, it’s a secret!”为什么Mrs Read不肯说出自己的年龄呢?因为英语国家人都希望自己在对方眼中显得精力充沛,青春永驻,对自己实际年龄秘而不宣,妇女更是如此.再如中国人表示关心的“你去哪儿?”（Where are you going?）和“你在干什么?”（What are you doing?）在英语中就成为刺探别人隐私的审问或监视别人的话语而不受欢迎.
中国和英语国家的文化差异还显著地表现在节日方面.除中国和英语国家共同的节日（如New Year’s Day）外,双方还各有自己独特的节日,中国有the Spring Festival
类似问题
类似问题1：英语论文中西方餐桌礼仪文化差异开题报告创新点现在写开题报告,那个创新点怎么写,200分都没人回答?
英语论文中西方餐桌礼仪文化差异开题报告创新点
西方餐桌礼仪的差异是很多的.
下面就我所知道有一些方面与你共享一下：
不少人在吃西餐时,都会担心“失礼”.其实,所谓餐桌礼仪是为了让餐膳可以不受阻碍和破坏,而得以顺利流畅地进行的实用守则.谨记“整齐、清洁和保持安静”三项原则便可无往而不利.
一、宴会礼仪
（1）在当你应邀赴宴时,你对同桌进餐的人和餐桌上的谈话,大概要比对饮食要更感兴趣.因此进餐时,应该尽可能地少一些声响,少一些动作.
（2）女主人一拿起餐巾时,你也就可以拿起你的餐巾,放在腿上.有时餐巾中包有一只小面包；如果是那样的话就把它取也,放在旁边的小碟上.
（3）餐巾如果很大,就双叠着放在腿上；如果很小,就全部打开.千万别将餐巾别在领上或背心上,也不要在手中乱揉.可以用餐巾的一角擦去嘴上或手指上的油渍或脏物.千万别用它来擦刀叉或碗碟.
（4）正餐通常从汤开始.在你座前最大的一把匙就是汤匙,它就在你的右边的盘子旁边.不要错用放在桌子中间的那把匙子,因为那可能是取蔬菜可果酱用的.
（5）在女主人拿起她的匙子或叉子以前,客人不得食用任何一道菜.女主人通常要等到每位客人都拿到菜后才开始.她不会像中国习惯那样,请你先吃.当她拿起匙或叉时,那就意味着大家也可以那样做了.
（6）如果有鱼这道菜的话,它多半在汤以后送上,桌上可能有鱼的一把专用叉子,它也可能与吃肉的叉子相似,通常要小一些,总之,鱼叉放在肉叉的外侧离盘较远的一侧.
（7）通常在鱼上桌之前,鱼骨早就剔净了,如果你吃的那块鱼还有刺的话,你可以左手拿着面包卷,或一块面包,右手拿着刀子,把刺拨开.
（8）如果嘴里有了一根刺,就应悄悄地,尽可能不引起注意地用手指将它取出,放在盘子边沿上,别放在桌上,或扔在地下.
此外,我对法国餐桌礼仪的忌讳有些了解,如后：
二、法国餐桌礼仪七忌
答应对方的邀请后如果临时有事要迟到甚至取消约会,必须事先通知对方.赴会时稍迟是可以接受的,但若超过15分钟便会给对方不重视约会的坏印象.在点菜时自己应选定想吃的食物,如果看遍菜牌也没有头绪的话,可请侍应为你推荐餐厅的招牌菜,但要给明确的表示,如想吃海鲜、不吃红肉等,切记事事拿不定主意,只懂说“是但(随便也罢)”的人只会为同台客人添加麻烦.用餐要注意的细节甚多,但其实大部分也是日常的礼仪,只要保持冷静,不做大动作,不出声响或阻碍别人用餐的话已算合格.
1、使用餐具最基本的原则是由外至内,完成一道菜后侍奉收去该份餐具,按需要或会补上另一套刀叉.
2、吃肉类时(如牛扒)应从角落开始切,吃完一块再切下一块.遇到不吃的部分或配菜,只需将它移到碟边.
3、如嘴里有东西要吐出来,应将叉子递到嘴边接出,或以手指取出,再移到碟子边沿.整个过程要尽量不要引别人注意,之后自然地用餐便可.
4、遇到豆类或饭一类的配菜,可以左手握叉平放碟上,叉尖向上,再以刀子将豆类或饭轻拨到叉子上便可.若需要调味料但伸手又取不到,可要求对方递给你,千万不要站起来俯前去取.
5、吃完抹手抹嘴切忌用餐巾大力擦,注意仪态用餐巾的一角轻轻印去嘴上或手指上的油渍便可.
6、就算凳子多舒服,坐姿都应该保持正直,不要靠在椅背上面.进食时身体可略向前靠,两臂应紧贴身体,以免撞到隔壁.
7、吃完每碟菜之后,如将刀叉四边放,又或者打交叉乱放,非常难看.正确方法是将刀叉并排放在碟上,叉齿朝上.
类似问题2：英语翻译我选择翻译类的论文方向,但是不会写开题报告[数学科目]
写电影字幕翻译的可以吗
类似问题3：《中西方文化差异对国际商务谈判的影响》的英文论文怎么写?
首先写差异,在写造成的影响,在写建议的解决方法.
差异可以从各个方面入手,如时间观念的差异,空间观念,语言表达习惯,思维方式,不同的禁忌,价值观等.
影响可以先概括的写,然后举例说明,谈判桌上出现的一些矛盾,以及误解,甚至不合作.例子不要举太多,最重要的还是自己的态度.
方法就很多了,克服民族中心论,再就不外乎在谈判前先了解西方的各种文化习惯,参加文化补习班,当然一味的迁就与适应也不是上策,必要时也需要做好文化渗透,让己方文化为对方熟知.
之前写过一篇类似的论文,在这里概括的写了一下BODY部分的思路,
类似问题4：关于中西方美食文化差异的英语文章速度快点,急需[英语科目]
Eating Custom and Practice
American eating is funny.They eat almost everything with a fork,and it appears that holding a knife in one's right hand longer than a few seconds is considered to be against good table manners.
饮食的风俗和习惯
美国人的饮食习惯很有趣.他们吃所有东西都用叉子.好像用右手拿刀几秒钟就被认为与好的桌上进餐礼仪相违背.
The system is that if it is absolutely necessary to use a knife,people take the fork in their left hand,and cut off a piece of meat or whatever it is in the normal manner.Then they put the knife down,transfer the fork to their right hand,and only then do they transport the food to their mouth.This is clearly ludicrous(滑稽可笑),but it is considered good manners.
这种用法就是如果绝对需要用刀的话,人们就用左手拿叉,按平常的方法切下移小块肉和者其它的东西.然后他们把刀放下,把叉转到右手,只有这时他们才把食物送入口中.这显然很滑稽,但却是被认为是好的礼仪.
There are several results of this system.First,if it is not absolutely necessary to use a knife,Americans don't use one,because obviously this greatly complicates(使复杂化) things,and you will therefore see them trying to cut things like potatoes,fish and even bacon(熏猪肉) with a fork.Second,towards the end of a course,since only one implement(器具) is being used,food has to do chased around the plate with the fork - and for the last mouthful the thumb has to be used to keep the food in place,although one is not supposed to do this.
这样做有几种结果.首先,如果不是绝对需要用到刀,美国人是 不用的.因为这样使得事情复杂化了.所以你就会看到他们用叉来切土豆,鱼,甚至熏猪肉.其次,由于只是用了一种器具,在吃完一道菜时,就要用叉来到处弄食物,最后一口往往就需要大拇指的帮忙,虽然是不该用的.
Third,tables are generally laid with one knife and two forks,the outside fork being for the salad.There is no need for foreign visitors to follow the American system and try to eat the salad with only a fork,but if you do use your knife,remember to save it for the meat course.
第三,桌上通常会放一把刀,两把叉,外面的叉是用于吃色拉的.外国人是不必跟美国人一样试图用一把叉来吃色拉.但是如果你用刀,记得用来切肉类.
Even desserts(甜食) (except ice cream) are eaten with a fork if at all possible,and the spoon you see by your dessert is meant to be for coffee (but if you use it for your dessert no one will say anything).
在可能的情况下,甚至甜食(除了冰淇淋) 都用叉来吃,在你看到的甜品边上的小勺是给你的咖啡用的(但是如果你用它来吃甜品,没人会说什么.
参考文献：词典
类似问题5：帮忙写（找）一篇关于研究中西方文化差异的论文.1000~2000字,用英语写1000~2000字,用英语.[英语科目]
隐喻的中西方文化差异
Abstract: Metaphor is not only a linguistic phenomenon but also a way of thinking, which is one of the basic methods for human survival and cognition. It is rooted in language, thought and culture. Through the analysis and comparison of the use and concept of metaphor in different countries, we find that its universality and commonality of the metaphor as a basic human cognitive activities. However, metaphor in different languages reflects a different way of thinking and behavior and different cultural patterns. Owing to the different two modes of thinking and culture, there are some differences in understanding and formation that can not be ignored. Therefore, this paper will discuss the questions above.
Keywords: metaphor, cross-cultural differences, translation.
1. Preamble
Metaphor is a common phenomenon, a large number of people use metaphor to express his feelings and ideas. British scientists rhetoric Richards (IARichards) once said, "We have day-to-day in almost every conversation in three sentences may be a metaphor." According to statistics, life around the use of 4,700,000 new metaphor, 2,140,000 stereotypes of metaphor. Research in recent years, there is a great metaphor. This article introduced in the definition of metaphor on the basis of summing up the similarities and differences between Chinese and Western metaphor, and that its culture, precisely because of the prevalence of metaphor, how to translate metaphor has become a very important issue in the latter part of the article is aimed at The translation of metaphor put forward a translation of the three strategies. This paper studies aimed at trying to comparative analysis of English and Chinese in a large number of day-to-day language of metaphor to express, find out the differences and similarities, in order to be able to accurately translate the article in good metaphor to explore a little. This article is about the metaphor from the point of view to explore the differences in the way Thinking allows us to a deeper understanding of language, culture, the relationship between thinking and can more clearly understand the different ethnic language, culture, way of thinking, and so on On the nature of translation.
2. Metaphors in Chinese and Western studies
In 1980, Lakoff & Johnson (George Lakoff & Mark Johnson) made a "living metaphor" (Metaphors We Live By) of the book, a modern metaphor to open a new chapter in the school. Domestic academia on the "metaphor" This is also a review of the system, such as Lin Wu's book "Study abroad metaphor Looking at the" beam-setting "metaphor research," Li of China and India "The main subjects Metaphor" and so on. However, the Chinese metaphor for the academic study of rare. "Chinese scholars on the study of metaphor, I am afraid the real contribution should be through the metaphor of the Chinese characteristics of research and study, through the metaphor of the Chinese and other languages in the comparative study of metaphor, metaphor for the establishment of a more general theory of the strong, and even unique The basis. "Lin Wu in the book" metaphor of the basic research the status quo, and the focus of the trend "in the main text, put forward a model of cultural metaphors with the relationship:" The language of metaphor is the emergence of expression into the system, which not only reflects the psychological Structure, but also reflect the different cultural models also play a role. "
2.1 metaphor in the relationship between Chinese and Western cultures
2.1.1 relationship
Correspond to (corresponding) refers to the relationship between the two languages, English and Chinese in the meaning and metaphor in the use of the same meaning in the culture and image, and so on and-one mapping. This is because the survival of mankind itself, as well as all the external conditions, including the geographical environment, climate change, and the whole of human society and cultural background are certain there is a common, which formed a common humanity of their own and the outside world on many issues. In the "angry" mood, the English are angry that physiological responses, such as: grind one's teeth. (Teeth), bare one's teeth. (Ziyaliezui) an eye for an eye and a tooth for a tooth. (an eye for an eye, a tooth for a tooth), reflecting the Chinese culture on the basis of common experience.
2.1.2 non-correspondence
English-Chinese metaphor, after all, rooted in two different languages on the soil, resulting in very different cultural backgrounds, fully corresponds to the few metaphors, the vast majority do not have common cultural identity in order to form the corresponding non-(non-corresponding ) Relations. Non-relationship metaphor can be roughly divided into three categories:
2.1.2.1 Vehicle counterpart, Yu Yi does not correspond to
English and Chinese in some cases there is the same as a metaphor, but in their own language and culture in the meaning of the metaphor means is different, even different. Peacock in the Chinese culture is auspicious, a symbol of beauty, especially the Dai people to express jumped Pavaner desire to better their own. If the Chinese people will be likened to a peacock, it means that beautiful light. However, in English, peacock (Peacock) is a symbol of pride, often interpreted as arrogance, love to show off. For example, They were eager to take the young peacock down a peg. (They want to pressure a pressure that the arrogant young guy's momentum).
2.1.2.2 counterpart Yu Yi, the vehicle does not correspond to
English-Chinese two nations due to their differences, from different angles to look at things the same, it will be a different analogy. As a result both English and Chinese language there is a different vehicle, but Yu was referring to was basically the same as the meaning of the case, that is the same kind of non-correspondence. Such as: a person described as the hearts of anxious, restless, Chinese is "ants on the hot pan" and English is "a cat on the bricks". There are similar: To kick down the ladder. Guohechaiqiao.
2.1.2.3 Yu Yu Yi and do not correspond to
Some of the metaphors Yu-Yu has a meaning and it refers to the language and culture are closely related, in another culture often can not find corresponding Yu and Yu Yi, which resulted in a culture known as the default Phenomenon. For example: in English "my rib" I am referring to Yu's wife, it comes from the "Bible" story, that is, Adam (Adam)'s wife Eve (Eve) God is with a piece of Adam's rib made. The Chinese did not, "the Bible" cultural background, and there was no analogy with rib habit, so the formation of a corresponding gap. Similarly, "ugly duckling" (Ugly Duckling) refers to the metaphor will get ahead of Little, "early bird" refers to the diligent Yu, in the words into Chinese language, culture, as a result of the default, can not find a corresponding relationship between metaphor .
2.2 Chinese and Western cultures in the common metaphor
Metaphor and culture to a large extent, human beings have a common understanding, rooted in the people's own day-to-day experience. In this connection, often between different ethnic groups are the same. Both English and Chinese language in a lot of abstract thinking that the metaphorical expression is the same. For example: the human child in the period to form a position on the concept of input in that direction in the form of many of them easily understood, including the position expressed by metaphor, which has become a fixed pattern of thinking. For example: The term direction (up, down) to describe people's social status, physical, emotional, and other abstract concepts to the case when the good is up; Sad is down. We Chinese are also not difficult to find a similar sentence: "Gas Prices "," enhance the social status "and" vision "and" depressed. " Since the objective laws of nature with the relative unity of different cultures to understand the nature of the course is similar to the cognitive experience.
2.3 in the metaphor of the difference between Chinese and Western cultures
As the English-Chinese geographical and cultural differences, living in two different cultures in practice there are a lot of differences, and different life experiences and let people understand the objective world, a different language carries different nationalities Cultural characteristics and cultural information. Understanding of metaphor is not out of socio-cultural backgrounds. For example, social and cultural impact of the color words is deep-rooted, some color words in different cultures in an entirely different meaning, has a distinctive feature of our national culture. Such as: English, said in green "inexperienced" and "shallow knowledge", such as: "a green hand", "I was very green when I started working there." The Chinese like to express the meaning of the word is "yellow" Such as: "Huangmaoyatou" and "flower girl". Cultural background knowledge is the metaphor to create a rich source of thinking, as the Eastern and Western cultures are different, metaphors in English and Chinese applications there are also significant differences.
2.4 The metaphor of the cross-cultural differences between Chinese and Western influence
Language is a cultural change in the development of the complex, subject to political, economic, historical, environmental and other factors. Chinese and Western styles are different, but in many ways to infiltrate interaction and integration, language differences and cultural metaphor for the inevitable impact is complex and diverse.
2.4.1 metaphorical expression of cultural conflict
Different nationalities in the world to observe a different perspective and ideas, different cultures there are a lot of conflict or inconsistency metaphor. If the animal metaphors, in English Long (dragon) is a kind of evil, will belch out smoke monster. "Bible", the dragon is the devil, is a symbol of evil and terror, there is a terrible vicious meaning. The Chinese dragon is in power, the auspicious symbol of Chinese traditional culture, the Chinese have "Wangzichenglong", "descendants of the Dragon." The same analogy in different cultures, different meaning, of two cultures
"Dragon" to give a different connotation.
2.4.2 differences in living conditions caused by differences in metaphor
In English is a lot of metaphor and marine-related, such as: all at sea (at a loss what to do); drink like a fish (drinking cow); fish in the air (Shuizhonglaoyue); give up the ship (give up). In Chinese, there are a lot of the horse or cattle pose a metaphor, such as: "a willing ox" (a willing horse) Gan means to serve the community; "old ox" (a working horse) refers to the hard work; "bragging "(Talk horse), and so on. This is due to different geographical location and natural environment caused by different cultural metaphor. Britain is an island, ultimately, dependent on the sea, and China is a large agricultural country, farming culture deeply feudal society.
2.4.3 different religious and cultural differences arising from the metaphor
Religious culture of human culture is an important part of it by referring to the nation's religious beliefs, such as the formation of the sense of culture, "the Bible" in the story, with its language and meaning has become a feature of daily life in the West in terms of . For example, power of the keys (the keys to the kingdom of heaven; the rights of the Pope), in the right church, but in the wrong pew (in general is right, but not the details), and so on. Chinese culture and Buddhism, Taoism and more affected by the impact of Confucianism, the Chinese, there are a lot of related argot. "Jiehuaxianfo"; "临时抱佛脚"; "做一天和尚撞一天钟" and so on.
It is due to the diversity of culture, resulting in the differences between English and Chinese metaphor. This difference to the cross-cultural communication has brought the impact. As a foreign language students, do not understand the difference between metaphor and language will make mistakes, sometimes mistakenly made good as pleasant, caused by either one or both of the conversation unpleasant; also sometimes mocked as a praise. When a native language other operators do not understand the language contained in the cultural differences, it is often difficult for such language to accurately convey the meaning of the understanding, difficulty to the cross-cultural exchange.
3. Metaphor of the three methods of translation
The translation of metaphor not only accurately and effectively convey the original language, but also loyal, accessible, complete reproduction of the original language and cultural connotation and significance. But in the West because of cultural differences and different, so the translation of metaphor in English on the need to consider not only its literal sense, and so on, but also in the West should pay attention to their cultural differences.
American Eugene Nida said: "Translation is the exchange between the two cultures. The real success of the translation, even more familiar with the two cultures is more important to master two languages. Because only in terms of its role in the culture In the background will only be meaningful. "Therefore, the translation of metaphor to combining Chinese and Western cultures, and cultural backgrounds to leave the translation, can not be achieved between the two languages of the real exchange.
3.1 Literal Translation
The so-called "literal" is asked in the language when conditions permit, in the translation to maintain the original content, but also to maintain the original form, in particular, to maintain the original metaphor, the image of the nation, and other local color. In the literal translation method to maintain the original expression of the culture and at the same time, target enriched the vocabulary and expression, such as: "a Pandora's box" (Pandora's Box); "chain reaction" (chain reaction). In the original text and asked the information contained in the same culture, we should adopt the literal translation method.
(1) You are my sunshine, my only sunshine.
: You are my sun, my only sunshine.
In Chinese and English, the sun is warm, beautiful, in both languages, they disseminate information on culture are the same. As a rule, and asked in the original text in the form of grammatical structure, similar to the style or color on basically the same, the law should adopt the literal translation.
(1) He is another Shylock.
: He is also a Shylock. (Note: Shakespeare's Shylock is "The Merchant of Venice" in a very harsh mean business
People. )
(2) To carry coals to Newcastle.
: Coal to Newcastle. (Note: "Newcastle" is a British coal, coal is superfluous here.)
4. Conclusion
Metaphor as a way to figures of speech or skills, a unique feature of grammar, which features make the sentence more flexible and constructive, but the United States. Is a metaphor to express more complex ideas and things, a powerful tool. Wherever and whenever people in their daily lives are often used metaphor. As Mr. Lin Zhuang said: "The metaphor is no longer expanding his knowledge and understanding of a passive process. To help us in the form of new knowledge, the metaphor has played an active role so that we can better a better understanding of the objective world." In English and Chinese Metaphorical significance of the difference is due to cultural differences between East and West, that mode of thinking, moral values and sense of difference. However, different cultural impact of what is the concept of metaphor, it is still a need to examine and address the problem. At the same time, in the metaphor of the process of translation must pay special attention to cultural differences. The best translation is to be able to accurately reflect the true meaning of the author, as well as its cultural and stylistic characteristics of the translation, that is, the translation of metaphor to make as much as possible the original language and to achieve the target language culture, and so on.